1. Methodological memos:
(프로잭트 글에 관해 매우 중요함!) IMPORANT Quotations from the required books:
- Problem Statement: How can the purpose statement be best written to convey the orientation of an approach to research? –(Crewell 2007, p. 101).
- Purpose Statement (Phenomenology)- How can the purpose statement be best written- (Crewell 2007, p. 101).- Phenomenology, Describe, Experiences, Meaning, Essence (Crewell 2007, p. 105)
- Research Question (a Theoretical lens): Two broad, general questions (Moustakas, 1994): #1. What have you experienced in terms of the phenomenon? #2. What contexts or situations have typically influenced or affected our experiences of the phenomenon? (These two questions focus attention on gathering data that will lead to a textural description and a structural description of the experiences, and ultimately provide an understanding of the common experiences of the participants. – (Crewell 2007, p. 61)
- How can a central question be written so that it encodes and foreshadows an approach to qualitative research?- (Crewell 2007, p. 102).
- Qualitative research questions are open-ended, evolving, and nondirectional; restate the purpose of the study in more specific terms; start with a word such “what” or “how” rather than “why”; and are few in number (five to seven). – (Crewell 2007, p. 107). (e.g. “What meaning do 41 men and 17 women with a diagnosis of AIDS ascribe to their illness?”)
Sub-questions: How can sub-questions be presented so that they reflect the issues being explored in an approach to qualitative research? –(Crewell 2007, p. 102).
(e.g. “What does it mean to be a college professor in the classroom? As a researcher? As an advisor?”)
Example (Phenomenology)- (Crewell 2007, p. 111).
Central Question: “What does it mean (to practitioners) to be a professional teacher?
Issue subquestions:
- What do professional teachers do?
- What don’t professional teachers do?
- What does a person do who exemplifies the term “teacher professionalism”?
- What is difficult or easy about being a professional educator?
- How or when did you first become aware of being a professional?
Procedural subquestions:
- What are the structural meanings of teacher professionalism?
- What are the underlying themes and contexts that account for this view of teacher professionalism?
- What are the universal structures that precipitate feelings and thoughts about “teacher professionalism”?
- What are the invariant structural themes that facilitate a description of “teacher professionalism” as it is experienced by practicing elementary classroom teachers?
- Interest Study: such as anger, professionalism according to Moustakas (1994)
(Crewell 2007, pp. 120-121)
- The participants may be located at a single site (#1)
- Must be multiple individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon being explored and can articulate their lived experiences. (#2)
- Finding people who have experienced the phenomenon (#3)
- Interviews with 5-25 people (Polkinghorne, 1989) (#4)
- Interviews, often multiple interviews with the same individuals (#5)
- Bracketing one’s experiences, logistics of interviewing (#6)
- Transcriptions, computer files (#7)
EXAMPLE:
In the Anderson and Spencer (2002) study of the patients’ images of AIDS, 58 men and women participated in the project at three sites dedicated to persons with HIV/AIDS: a hospital clinic, a long-term care facility, and a residence. These were all individuals with a diagnosis of AIDS, 18 years of age or older, able to communicate in English, and with a Mini-Mental Status score above 22. In such a study, it was important to obtain permission to have access to the vulnerable individuals participating in the study (Crewell 2007, p. 125).
2. Analytic memos
- Purposeful Sampling Strategy: Decisions need to be made about who or what should be sampled, what form the sampling will take, and how many people or sites need to be sampled. Further, the researchers need to decide if the sampling will be consistent with the information needed by one of the five approaches to inquiry (Crewell 2007, p. 125).
- The size question is an equally important decision to sampling strategy in the data collection process. One general guideline in qualitative research is not only to study a few sites or individuals but also to collect extensive detail about each site or individual studied. The intent in qualitative research is not to generalize the information (except in some forms of case study research), but to elucidate (설명하다/해명하다) the particular, the specific (Pinnegar & Daynes, 2006).
- In phenomenology, I have seen the number of participants range from 1 (Dukes, 1984) tup to 325 (Polkinghorne, 1989). Dukes (1984) recommends studying 3 to 10 subjects, and in one phenomenology, Riemen (1986) studied 10 individuals. … I recommend Lauterbach (1993), the study wished- for babies from mothers, as an especially rich example of phenomenological research using diverse forms of data collection. - (Crewell 2007, p. 131).
- Sampling Procedures
- Data are collected from the individuals who have experienced the phenomenon. Often data collection in phenomenological studies consists of indepth interviews and multiple interviews with participants. Pokinghorne (1989) recommends that researchers interview from 5 to 25 individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon. Other forms of data may also be collected, such as observations, journals, art, poetry, music, and other forms of art. Van Manen(1990) mentions taped conversations, formally written responses, accounts of vicarious experiences of drama, films, poetry, and novels. – (Crewell 2007, p. 61)
- A Compendium of Data Collection Approaches in Qualitative Research- (Crewell 2007, p. 130). _IMPORTNAT!!!
o Observations (Step #1)
o Interviews (Step #2)
o Documents (Step #3)
o Audiovisual Materials (Step #4)
INTERVIEWING- (Crewell 2007, pp. 132-134).
- Step #1: Identify interviewees based on one of the purposeful sampling procedures mentioned in the preceding discussion (see Miles & Huberman, 1994)
- Step #2: Determine what type of interview is practical and will net the most useful information to answer research questions. (e.g. Assess the types available, such as a telephone interviews, focus groups, one-on-one interviewing)
- Step #3: Use adequate recording procedures when conducting one-on-one or focus group interviews.
- Step #4: Design and use an interview protocol, a form about four or five pages in length, with approximately five open-ended questions and ample space between the questions to write responses to the interviewee’s comments.
- Step #5: Refine the interview questions and the procedures further through pilot testing.
- Step #6: Determine the place for conducting the interview. Fine a quiet location free from distractions. Ascertain (규명하다/확정하다) if the physical setting lends itself to audio-taping, a necessity, in accurately recording information.
- Step #7: After arriving at the interview site, obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the study. Have the interviewee complete a consent form for the human relations review board.
- Step #8: During the interview, stay to the questions, complete the interview within the time specified, be respectful and courteous, and offer few questions and advice. Also record information on the interview protocol in the event that the audio-recording does not work. Recognize that quickly inscribed notes may be incomplete and partial because of the difficulty of asking questions and writing answers at the same time.
OBSERVING-(Crewell 2007, pp. 134-135).
- Step #1: Select a site to be observed (Required permissions)
- Step #2: At the site, identify who or what to observe, when and for how long
- Step #3: Determine, initially, a role to be assumed as an observer.
- Step #4: Design an observational protocol as a method for recording notes in the field.
- Step #5: Record aspects such as portraits of the informant, the physical setting, particular events and activities, and your own reactions (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992).
- Step #6: During the observation, have someone introduce you if you are an outsider, be passive and friendly, and start with limited objectives in the first few sessions of observation.
- Step #7: After observing, slowly withdraw from the site, thanking the participants and informing them of the use of the data and their accessibility to the study.
RECORDING PROCEDURES- (Crewell 2007, p. 135)
- The interview protocol enables a person to take notes during the interview about the Reponses of the interviewee. It also helps a researcher organize thoughts on items such as headings, information about starting the interview, concluding ideas, information on ending the interview, and thanking the respondent.
- Field Issues- (Crewell 2007, pp. 138-142):
Access to the organization; Observation; Interviews; Documents and Audiovisual Materials Ethical Issues
- Data Analysis: It is similar for all psychological phenomenologists who discuss the methods (Moustakas, 1994; Polkinghorne, 1989). Building on the data from the first and second research questions, data analysts go through the data (e.g., interview transcriptions) and highlight “significant statements,” sentences, or quotes that provide an understanding of how the participants experienced the phenomenon. Moustakas (1994) calls this step horizonalization. Next, the researcher develops clusters of meaning from these significant statements into themes. – (Crewell 2007, p. 61)
- These significant statements and themes are then use to write a description of what the participants experienced (textural description). They are also used to write a description of the context or setting that influenced how the participants experienced the phenomenon, called imaginative variation or structural description. Moustakas (1994) adds a further step: researchers also write about their own experiences and the context and situations that have influenced their experiences. – (Crewell 2007, p. 61)
- From the structural and textural descriptions, the researcher then writes a composite description that presents the “essence” of the phenomenon, called the essential, invariant structure (or essence). Primarily this passage focuses on the common experiences of the participants. E.g. it means that all experiences have an underlying structure (grief is the same whether the loved one is a puppy, a parakeet, or a child). It is a descriptive passage, a long paragraph or two, and the reader should come away from the phenomenology with the felling, “I understand better what it is like for someone to experience that” (Polkinghorne, 1989, p. 46). – (Crewell 2007, p. 62)
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